A Critical Research Review of Edward Said’s and Ibn Warraq’s Views on Orientalism and Orientalists

Abstract

With the rise of Islam, interactions with Christian and Jewish communities were often shaped by political conflict, military confrontation, and ideological opposition; however, over time it became apparent that direct confrontation was ineffective in influencing Muslim societies, leading Western scholars to engage in systematic study of Islamic sources, history, and civilization—an intellectual enterprise that later developed into what is known as Orientalism. Within this tradition, three broad orientations of Orientalists can be identified: first, those whose deep engagement with Islamic studies ultimately led them to embrace Islam, such as Martin Lings and Maurice Bucaille; second, those who did not convert but offered balanced and sympathetic interpretations of Islam, defending it against misrepresentations and critiquing earlier Orientalist biases, including scholars such as Edward Said and Karen Armstrong; and third, those who adopted a polemical and hostile approach, portraying Islam as an inherently violent religion and questioning the authenticity of its Prophet and foundational teachings. This study analyzes these three orientations in order to demonstrate the diversity within Orientalist discourse and to assess its intellectual and ideological implications for the academic study of Islam.